Roman Soldiers & Parasites: A Hadrian’s Wall Horror Story – Unearthing Ancient Illnesses
Life as a Roman soldier stationed along Hadrian’s Wall in the 3rd century CE was undoubtedly harsh. W.H. Auden poignantly captured this in his “Roman Wall Blues,” depicting a soldier battling relentless wet weather, “lice in my tunic and a cold in my nose.” Recent research, published in the journal Parasitology, adds a grim new dimension to this picture: chronic nausea and debilitating diarrhea caused by pervasive parasitic infections. This discovery sheds light on the daily struggles faced by those defending the Roman Empire’s northern frontier and offers valuable insights into ancient health and sanitation.
The Power of Paleoparasitology: What Ancient Feces Can Tell Us
Archaeologists are increasingly turning to the study of ancient intestinal parasites found in fossilized feces – a field known as paleoparasitology – to reconstruct the lives of past populations. This method provides a unique window into diet, hygiene, and overall health. For example, a 2022 analysis of a 7th-century BCE toilet in Jerusalem revealed the presence of whipworm, beef/pork tapeworm, roundworm, and pinworm eggs, marking the earliest known evidence of roundworm and pinworm in ancient Israel. Similarly, researchers examining a 5th-century CE Roman villa in Sicily identified parasitic worm eggs in a ceramic pot, strongly suggesting its use as a chamber pot.
These studies demonstrate how analyzing fecal parasites can reveal significant shifts in dietary habits, settlement patterns, and social structures linked to the rise of agriculture. The latest research focuses on a particularly compelling location: Vindolanda, a Roman fort just south of Hadrian’s Wall.
Vindolanda: A Remarkably Preserved Roman Fort
The ruins of Vindolanda were first documented in 1586 by antiquarian William Camden. Over the subsequent two centuries, various discoveries were made, including a military bathhouse (1702) and altars (1715 & 1914) confirming the fort’s name. Serious archaeological excavation began in the 1930s, yielding remarkable finds. Vindolanda is particularly famous for the Vindolanda tablets, the oldest surviving handwritten documents in the UK. More recently, in 2023, a controversial artifact was unearthed – initially identified as an ancient Roman dildo, though some scholars believe it was a drop spindle for spinning yarn.
Uncovering Parasitic Evidence at Hadrian’s Wall
Prior paleoparasitological studies in Roman Britain have largely focused on urban centers like London and York. Carlisle is the only other site along Hadrian’s Wall where such analysis has been conducted. Vindolanda’s exceptional state of preservation makes it an ideal location to investigate the transmission of parasites and the resulting gastrointestinal illnesses among the Roman soldiers stationed there.
In 2019, researchers collected sediment samples from the main drain carrying waste from the bathhouse toilet to a nearby stream. They also excavated remnants of a 17th-century farmhouse, uncovering sealed deposits from an earlier 3rd-century bathhouse drain. A total of 58 sediment samples, along with one sample from a fort ditch dating back to 90 CE, were analyzed.
The Results: A Widespread Problem
The analysis revealed a concerning prevalence of parasitic infection. 28 percent of the samples contained eggs from either roundworms or whipworms – intestinal parasites typically spread through poor sanitation, contaminated food, drink, or contact with fecal matter. The earliest sample, from the 1st-century fort ditch, also contained evidence of these parasites. Furthermore, using a biomolecular method to detect proteins produced by single-celled organisms, the team identified traces of Giardia duodenalis, a microscopic protozoan parasite known to cause diarrhea and malnutrition.
These findings suggest that Roman soldiers at Vindolanda regularly suffered from debilitating gastrointestinal issues. Even the presence of communal latrines and a sewer system couldn’t prevent the spread of these infections.
Implications for Roman Military Health and Fitness
Co-author Marissa Ledger of the University of Cambridge explains, “While the Romans were aware of intestinal worms, there was little their doctors could do to clear infection by these parasites or help those experiencing diarrhoea, meaning symptoms could persist and worsen.” These chronic infections likely weakened soldiers, reducing their fitness for duty. Helminths (parasitic worms) alone can cause nausea, cramping, and diarrhea, significantly impacting a soldier’s ability to perform their duties.
The constant battle against parasites likely added another layer of hardship to an already challenging life on the northern frontier of the Roman Empire. The research highlights the importance of sanitation and hygiene in maintaining military effectiveness, even in a highly organized and advanced society like Rome.
Beyond Vindolanda: The Broader Context of Roman Parasitology
This study builds upon a growing body of research examining parasitic infections in the Roman world. For instance, investigations into Roman cemeteries in various locations have revealed high rates of parasite prevalence. The types of parasites found often correlate with dietary habits and environmental conditions. Coastal settlements tend to show evidence of fish-borne parasites, while inland sites reveal a greater prevalence of parasites associated with livestock.
Furthermore, the study of Roman-era latrines and sewer systems provides valuable insights into sanitation practices. While the Romans were pioneers in public health infrastructure, these systems were often inadequate to prevent the spread of parasites, particularly in densely populated areas.
The Future of Paleoparasitology and Understanding Ancient Life
Paleoparasitology is a rapidly evolving field with the potential to revolutionize our understanding of ancient life. Advances in biomolecular techniques are allowing researchers to identify parasites with greater accuracy and sensitivity. This, in turn, is providing a more nuanced picture of ancient health, diet, and lifestyle.
Future research will likely focus on:
- Expanding the geographical scope of paleoparasitological studies to include more sites across the Roman Empire and beyond.
- Investigating the genetic diversity of ancient parasites to track their evolution and spread.
- Combining paleoparasitological data with other archaeological evidence, such as skeletal remains and ancient texts, to create a more comprehensive understanding of ancient health and disease.
The story of Roman soldiers and parasites at Hadrian’s Wall serves as a stark reminder that even the most powerful empires were vulnerable to the unseen threats of the microbial world. By continuing to explore the past through the lens of paleoparasitology, we can gain valuable insights into the challenges faced by our ancestors and the enduring importance of public health.
DOI: Parasitology, 2025. 10.1017/S0031182025101327